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1.
THE UNITED STATES NAVY: ITS RISE TO GLOBAL PARITY
1900-1922
The United States Navy was one of three navies which emerged as major players on the oceans of the world in the early years of the twentieth century. Like the navies of Germany and Japan it developed from a largely coast-defence force to challenge the three dominant navies of the nineteenth-century - Great Britain, France and Russia. This process began with the victory of the United States in the Spanish-American War of 1898 which brought new maritime responsibilities in the Caribbean and Far East. The need to secure the sea route to the soon to be constructed Panama Canal, and the acquisition of the Philippines in an increasingly unstable western Pacific were the most obvious impulses for the creation of a larger navy. The enthusiasm for naval might which characterised most powers in this period was enhanced by the unexpected elevation of one of the disciples of Arthur Mahan to the post of Commander-in-Chief of the United States Navy: President Theodore Roosevelt. Awareness of American economic and industrial might played a significant part in rise of the United States at the beginning of the twentieth-century. A number of comparisons can be made between American naval developments and those which occurred in the other navies of this period. 1. With its new
international responsibilities, there was more
justification and understanding of the emergence of the
United States Navy. Although not welcomed with open
arms, there does not appear to have been the
concern and worry which the emergence of the
Imperial German Navy created.
2. Unlike the French, American policy makers and leaders quickly abandoned previous concepts of a coastal defence navy, and concentrated on the creation of a battle fleet. 3. Like the French the battle fleet lacked balance. The construction of the fleet produced a substantial force of battleships without a supporting force of cruisers. The Americans followed the French example in the construction of large armoured cruisers which were too slow for fleet work, and too large and expensive for trade protection duties. They did produce an adequate force of sea-going destroyers - like the British - to provide a substantial torpedo striking force 4. The political and professional structure needed to develop and command a large naval force was as weak and diffuse as that of Germany but worked better in practice because of a more consistent focus compared with that of the German Kaiser. 5. The tactical structures of a battle fleet evolved like those of Great Britain with the gradual introduction of fleets, squadrons and flotillas. This process was speeded up in 1915 and 1916 as the Americans absorbed lessons from the war: this included a small naval staff to give focus and leadership along British lines. 6. Surprisingly, in view of its new acquisitions, the American followed the British example, and created a geographically concentrated battle fleet. This was the Atlantic Fleet. A substantial force was not formed in the Pacific until 1919. The final step to parity was the enormous naval strength which the United States Navy had by 1919-1920; the result of both the ship-building programmes from 1916 onwards, and the elimination or weakening of rivals whose participation in the Great War was longer and more catastrophic. 2.
THE LEADERSHIP OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY
* In World War 2, British First Sea Lord and then Prime Minister Winston Churchill addressed President Roosevelt as "Former Naval Person" because of the latter's World War 1 post. Churchill himself was first appointed First Sea Lord in 1911 at age 37 until resigning in 1915. Political
The Commander-in-Chief of the United States Navy was the President, and during this period was:
Routine administration was devolved to the Secretary of the Navy:
Amongst the Assistant Secretaries of the Navy were the related Roosevelts:
Administrative
From 1842, the Navy Department had been divided into several semi-autonomous bureaux. The task of co-ordinating the work of these bureaux fell to the Secretary and Assistant Secretary. By 1914, they were: Bureau of Yards and Docks
Bureau of Navigation [which handled personnel matters] Bureau of Ordnance Bureau of Construction and Repair Bureau of Steam Engineering Bureau of Supplies and Accounts Bureau of Medicine and Surgery The heads of each could be a civilian or a naval officer, all of whom were considered as Rear Admirals who were 'additional in grade' and outside the restrictions of age, time in office etc, which applied to flag officers. Two further developments took place in the aftermath of the Spanish-American War: (1) The General Board was
created on 14th September 1901 as a forum which could
tender advice to the Secretary of the Navy on all
matters pertaining to the development of the service.
Composed largely of senior flag officers on the verge of
retirement, it was chaired by Admiral Dewey until 1917.
He was succeeded by Rear Admiral Albert Winterhalter who
had been CinC Asiatic Fleet.
(2) On 7th May 1903, the coastline of the United States was divided into a series of Naval Districts. Initially responsible for coast defences, they assumed a wider range of responsibilities from 1911. Most naval district commanders of this period were junior flag officers or captains. Some remained paper organisations, without staff, until 1915. None can be equated with the Royal Navy's Home Commands, the French Maritime Prefectures, or the German Baltic and North Sea Naval Stations. The Naval Districts
were:
Professional
and Operational
Until 11th May 1915, there was no equivalent to the Chief of the Naval Staff in the United States Navy. There was a flag officer described as Aide for Operations to the General Board. The post of Chief of Naval Operations was created as a result of knowledge of the role of similar positions in London, Paris and Berlin. The status of the post was enhanced when the first occupant, Rear Admiral William Benson [who was the most junior flag officer] was given the acting rank of Admiral for the duration of his term of office [4 years]. He was succeeded by Admiral Robert Coontz on 1st November 1919. Throughout his term of office, his staff consisted of one captain and one clerk. 3.
FLAG OFFICERS OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY.
The four posts designated for rank of admiral The only substantive rank of flag officer was that of Rear Admiral. The singular exception to this was Admiral of the Navy George Dewey who had been given a special life-time rank as a reward for his victory at Manila Bay in 1898. From 1915, a small number of flag officers were given the acting rank of either Vice Admiral or Admiral while holding certain designated appointments. They reverted to Rear Admiral when relinquishing those appointments. Four posts were designated for the rank of Admiral: Chief of Naval Operations
CinC Asiatic Fleet [1915-1917 only] CinC Atlantic Fleet; and CinC Pacific Fleet. One post was designated as a Vice Admiral's appointment: Commander Battle Force,
Atlantic Fleet.
From 1917 the new post of
Commander US Naval Forces Europe was designated as a Vice
Admiral and then upgraded to Admiral in
December 1918.
At the same time, the Commander Cruiser Force, Atlantic Fleet and the Commander US Naval Forces France became Vice Admirals. This system of a single substantive rank, and a few temporary promotions, prevailed until the end of World War Two. The same system applied in the United States Army. It was the result of congressional determination to prevent the emergence of an officer class with possible political aspirations. This had been the response to misgivings over the role of President George Washington and Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton in the 1790's. A further method of asserting civilian control was legislation which determined the age limits, length of sea service, and description of the posts to be held by flag officers. All appointments were subject to approval by the United States Senate. A major consequence of this legislation was the relatively brief spell in office of an individual flag officer, most of whom did not hold more than the one appointment. As a result the United States Navy had a relatively faster turnover of flag officers than its European counterparts. When expansion occurred in 1917, the Navy Department had to resort to a series of temporary appointments for the duration of the conflict. The following table shows the numbers of flag officers available for service between 1914 and 1919. Four categories of flag officer are listed - substantive rank; additional in grade - these are the bureau chiefs; temporary; and temporary additional in grade.
* plus possibly 3
administrative posts filled by civilians
4.
PRINCIPAL FLAG OFFICERS AND POSTS 1914-1919
[all Rear Admirals
except *** Vice Admiral and ****Admiral]
Commanders Active in European Waters see
*"Victory at Sea" by R. Adm William Sims and
**"On the Coast of France: U.S. Naval Forces in French Waters" by Ens. Joseph Husband, dedicated to Admiral Wilson Aide
of Operations, General Board
11.2.1913-Bradley Fiske Chief
of Naval Operations
11.5.1915-William Benson **** Bureau
or Equivalent Chiefs
(it is not known when the "Bu" abbreviations were introduced or which of them are relevant to this list)
 Major General George Barnett USMC Fleet
Commanders
[Commanders-in-Chief from 1915]
Atlantic
Fleet
8.14-3.19 The posts in existence
August 1914 are in the order given in the Register of
Commissioned Officers.
Later additions are by date of establishment
Naval
Forces Europe
5.17-
Reserve
Force/2nd Division Pacific Fleet
[4.17-Patrol Force, Pacific Fleet]
5.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNITED STATES FLEET
The following lists are intended to illustrate the development of the United States Navy's squadrons and stations before 1914. 1890-1899
Transition
Notes
The North
Atlantic Squadron
became the North Atlantic Fleet 29.12.1902 and
then the Atlantic Fleet on 1.1.1906, by which time the
concentration of battleships had been completed.
The Asiatic Squadron became the Asiatic Fleet in 1903. It was merged with the Pacific Squadron in 1907 as the Pacific Fleet but became independent again in January 1910. The Pacific Fleet remained in being after that date. 1904-1911
Click for pre-Dreadnought Battleship Classes, Brief Characteristics, and Class Images
6.
'THE GREAT WHITE FLEET' 1907-1909
The most definitive and memorable demonstration of the
newly acquired naval power of the United States was the
circumnavigation of the globe by the 'Great White Fleet'
1907-1909. On 16th December 1907 sixteen
battleships steamed out of Hampton Roads, sailed south
along the east coast of South America, transited the
Straits of Magellan; steamed north to San Francisco.
After some local visits the fleet crossed the Pacific to
the Philippines. The fleet in whole or in part
visited New Zealand, Australia, and Japan. In
December 1908 it left the Far East, crossed the Indian
Ocean, transited the Suez Canal, and eventually returned
to Hampton Roads on 22nd February 1909. The battleships
were painted white - hence the description of the fleet.Click for pre-Dreadnought Battleship Classes, Brief Characteristics, and Class Images
The idea of President Theodore Roosevelt had its critics, especially in terms of leaving the Atlantic seaboard open to attack whilst the fleet was absent. With his sense of the dramatic, the president ignored the critics. The operation raised many issues, and solutions, to the problems of the long distance deployment of a fleet: some solutions had to wait until 1941. The principal components of the fleet were:
A torpedo flotilla of 6 ships accompanied the fleet as far as San Francisco. These ships were to remain in the Pacific Fleet until 1917 - they were Hopkins, Stewart, Hull, Truxton, Lawrence, and Whipple. The extent to which the naval defences of the United States were denuded can be assessed by a list of the major ships employed elsewhere on 1st January 1909.
7.
UNITED STATES NAVY DEPLOYMENTS 1914-1917
7.1 BATTLE SQUADRONS
& DIVISIONS - ATLANTIC FLEET 1914-1917
Click for Battleship Classes, Brief Characteristics, and Class Images
The eleven armoured
cruisers which bore the names of states were renamed
over a period of time in order to release their
original names for new construction battleships. The
renamings follow:
7.3 DESTROYER
DEPLOYMENT 1914-1917
Click for Destroyer Classes, Brief Characteristics, and Class Images
7.4 SUBMARINES
Click for Submarine Classes, Brief Characteristics, and Class Images
8.
THE UNITED STATES NAVY AT WAR, APRIL 1917-NOVEMBER
1918
The participation of the United States Navy began with the dispatch of Destroyer Division 8 to Queenstown in Ireland in May 1917 to reinforce the efforts of the Royal Navy to combat the German submarine offensive. By the Armistice, the United States Navy was heavily involved in several major aspects of the war at sea. The initial anti-submarine campaign was enlarged to ensure the safe passage of the troops of the American Expeditionary Force to France. About two million American soldiers crossed the Atlantic with a very high degree of safety by the end of the war. This prime task involved the bulk of the Atlantic Fleet which was reinforced by vessels from the Pacific and Asiatic Fleets. By November 1918 much new construction - especially of destroyers - was giving extra strength to the Atlantic Fleet. The Atlantic Fleet in April 1917 is listed in the second column of the table. Additions from other sources, losses, and total vessels in European waters in November 1918 follow:
To achieve its
principal task, the Atlantic Fleet contributed:
a battle squadron to
the British Grand Fleet (GF as 6BS) in November 1917
a battle division at Berehaven in southern Ireland by August 1918 a cruiser-transport force which included 21 cruisers of various types a large force of destroyers at Queenstown, totalling 24 ships by October 1918 an even larger force of destroyers at Brest, totalling 32 ships by October 1918 another seven destroyers at Gibraltar by the same date ten minelayers to lay the Northern Mine Barrage The manner in which
this was achieved can be seen by looking at the
changing composition of the various forces into which
the Atlantic Fleet was divided in 1917. These were:
The Battleship Force
provided:
battle squadron for
the British Grand Fleet
battle division to Ireland The Cruiser Force bulk of the ocean
escort force for troop convoys
The Destroyer Force large forces of
destroyers at Queenstown, Brest and
Gibraltar for ant-submarine operations and convoy
escorts
The Submarine Force a small number of
submarines for anti-submarine operations in
Ireland and the Azores
The Mine Force provided the
ships to lay the North Sea Mine Barrage
The Reserve Force training ships to
enable the USN to expand its manpower so rapidly
escort and patrol forces in less vital areas such as the Carribbean Before doing so, the
following transfers took place from the Pacific and
Asiatic Fleets:
8.1 THE BATTLE FORCE
1917-1918
Click for Battleship Classes, Brief Characteristics, and Class Images
In April 1917, the
Battle Force was composed of 14 'single-caliber' all
big-gunned battleships. A further 2 ships, New
Mexico and Mississippi were commissioned
during the course of hostilities: they replaced
Connecticut and Vermont - the 2 remaining
'multi-caliber' pre-Dreadnought battleships still
assigned in the spring of 1917.
From the following force, a newly formed Battle Division 9 was sent across the Atlantic in November 1917 to join the Grand Fleet. As part of that fleet it was designated 6th Battle Squadron. In August 1918, Battle Division 6 was partly deployed to Berehaven in Ireland to provide extra protection to the trans-Atlantic troop convoys in case of a breakout into the Atlantic by German heavy ships.
Summary of service
1917-1918
The Reserve Force provided a further battle division, composed of pre-dreadnought, multi-caliber battleships. These ships were employed on patrol and escort duties along the eastern seaboard -Virginia, Nebraska, Georgia, New Jersey, and Rhode Island. They were joined by Vermont in 1918. All the other old battleships [17 in all] were employed on harbour training duties throughout the conflict. 8.2 THE CRUISER FORCE
1917-1918
Click for Cruiser Classes, Brief Characteristics, and Class Images
Prior to April 1917, the cruiser forces in the Atlantic and the Pacific were employed on patrol duties along the coasts of Mexico during the civil war in that country; on patrol tasks in the Caribbean as the Panama Canal became operational; and in showing the flag and generally protecting American interests. Several smaller vessels - described as gunboats were employed on similar tasks. One cruiser - Des Moines - was stationed in the Mediterranean on such protection duties. During the war, the cruisers were concentrated under command of the Atlantic Fleet. The pre-war duties on the Mexican coast continued, as did operations in the Caribbean. These were extended to include surveillance on interned German merchant ships in South American waters. The most important tasks were to protect seaborne trade along the eastern seaboard from Florida to Nova Scotia; and to provide ocean escorts for the transatlantic troop convoys. In this latter task they operated in conjunction with the large forces of British and French armoured cruisers. Cruisers employed in the Atlantic Fleet:
At various times, the command organisation for cruiser operations is described as: 'Cruiser Force, Atlantic
Fleet',
'Patrol Force, Atlantic Fleet', 'Cruiser & Transport Force, Atlantic Fleet'. It is not certain whether these are simply a change of name for the same force, or whether they were separate and distinct forces. The concentration of cruisers in the Cruiser-Transport Force in the autumn of 1918 tends to suggest that the former was the case. The Cruiser & Force 1.7.18:
8.3 DESTROYER FORCE
1917-1918
Click for Destroyer Classes, Brief Characteristics, and Class Images
The demands of the war against the German U-boats involved almost all of the US Navy's destroyer force. Its intended role as a torpedo strike force operating with the battle fleet was abandoned in favour of operations in European waters. In April 1917, a total of 68 destroyers were in commission: 8 served in the Pacific Fleet; 5 in the Asiatic Fleet; and 2 were attached to the Submarine Force. The destroyer divisions in the Atlantic Fleet totalled 52 ships. At this stage, only 6 'prototype' flush-deckers were under construction [one of which Gwin, was not completed until 1920. Work on the mass construction of the 'flush-deckers' had yet to begin. Of the 272 completed, only 50 had entered service by the time of the armistice. The movement of destroyers to European waters began with the arrival of the 6 units of Destroyer Division to Queenstown in April 1917. By August of that year, 35 destroyers had arrived at the Irish base. During 1918, this total was reduced as ships were moved to Brest to join others which had come directly from the United States. By August of 1918, there were 33 destroyers at Brest and 24 at Queenstown. Five destroyers completed the voyage from the Philippines to Gibraltar by August 1917. Most of the ships from the Pacific were retained for patrol work in the Caribbean. By November 1918, the United States Navy has 93 operational destroyers, of which, 70 were in European waters. Total losses amounted to 2 ships - Chauncey on 19.11.17 [collision] and Jacob Jones on 6.12.17 [enemy action]. Distribution of destroyers in service in April 1917:
8.4 SUBMARINE FORCE
1917-1918
Click for Submarine Classes, Brief Characteristics, and Class Images
At the beginning of 1917, the United States Navy had 43 submarines in service. All were small boats designed only for harbour and coast defence duties. They were distributed between the three main fleets:
Until 17th November 1911, submarines were given names. On that date, all named submarines were redesignated with a letter/number combination. Submarines built after that date were given letter/number titles rather than names. During the course of the war, a further 43 boats were completed: all with limited range and endurance. Two classes of boats designed for ocean-going operations were under construction at the time of the armistice. They were the 27 boats of the R class, and the 52 boats of the S class. As a result of these operational limitations, only a small number of USN submarines participated in the European war. A division was stationed in the Azores from October 1917, and this was followed by the establishment of a divsion at Berehaven in January 1918. Both flotillas were to engage in anti-submarine patrols. The divisions were:
8.5 THE MINE FORCE
1917-1918
The principal mine-laying force consisted of two old cruisers - Baltimore, and San Francisco. In 1918 both ships were deployed to the United Kingdom as part of the US lead project to create a North Sea Mine Barrier which would stretch from the Shetlands to Norway. The two former cruisers were joined by eight converted merchant ships. As a result, the squadron which took the principal role in laying the barrage was:
During 1919 the United States Navy employed a substantial force to clear the barrage, including 34 minesweepers, 2 ocean tugs [same as above], 24 submarine chasers, 20 trawlers, and 10 auxiliaries [with Black Hawk as flagship]. The task was completed in November 1919. 8.6 SUBMARINE CHASERS
72 submarine chasers were sent to European waters - 36 to Plymouth, England and 36 to the Straits of Otranto, Adriatic Sea. 9.
STRENGTH OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY, NOVEMBER 1918
10.
THE TWO OCEAN NAVY 1919-1922
On 1st July 1919, the hitherto predominant Atlantic Fleet was split into two equal battle fleets - The Atlantic Fleet and The Pacific Fleet. With the elimination of any threat to American security from Europe, the United States decided to switch its attention to the Pacific where the emergence of Japan as a major naval power had continued with little hindrance during the war years. The instability in eastern Asia brought about by the revolution and consequent civil war in Russia was an added incentive to meet long-term criticisms of the imbalance in American naval strength brought about by the concentration of the battle fleet on the eastern seaboard. In addition, renewed attention was paid to the strength of the Asiatic Fleet. Until the peace treaties came into effect, the United States Navy retained a major presence in European waters - especially in the eastern Mediterranean. The establishment of the two fleets was permanent but this was disguised to some extent by organisational changes during the inter-war years. On 6th December 1922, the two fleets were merged into the United States Fleet. Of the two main components, the Battle Force was based on the west coast, and the Scouting Force, on the east coast. With some internal changes, this remained the case until 1941. To illustrate the change which took place in 1919, here is the composition of the United States Navy's forces on 1st July 1920. 10.1
THE ATLANTIC FLEET [Admiral Henry B. Wilson]
Battleships
and Cruisers
Click for Battleship Classes, Brief Characteristics, and Class Images; also for Cruisers
Destroyers Click for Destroyer Classes, Brief Characteristics, and Class Images
10.2 THE PACIFIC FLEET
[Admiral Hugh Rodman]
Battleships
and Cruisers
Destroyers
Submarines
10.3 ASIATIC FLEET
[Admiral Albert Gleaves]
10.4 EUROPEAN
SQUADRON [Rear Admiral Harry Knapp]
10.5 SPECIAL SERVICE
SQUADRON [Caribbean]
SOURCES
For some unknown reason, the United States Navy did not produce an official history of the service's operations in the Great War. The United States Army, on the other hand, produced an immensely detailed three volume guide - 'Order of Battle of the United States Army in the World War 1917-1918' Contemporary USN documents used were: 'Register of the
Commissioned Officers and Warrant Officers of the
United States Navy and Marine Corps' which was
published annually and was the nearest equivalent to
the Royal Navy's 'Navy Lists'. Issued each year, it
included full details on the organisation and order of
battle of the service - except for 1918 when the
relevant section on the order of battle was omitted.
'Ships Data: United States Naval Vessels' was an annual publication which not only provided full technical details of the ships, but also information on status and location. These were supplemented by more recent secondary works: Two volumes by Paul
Silvestone:
'US Warships of World War I' 'The New Navy 1883-1922' To which can be added: 'Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1906-1921' |
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